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"Nineteenth-century European astronomers tried for decades to explain the variations in their careful astronomical observations. But where the best minds in Europe failed, an intellectual upstart from America succeeded. In 1891 Seth Carlo Chandler Jr., an actuary for a Boston insurance company with no formal education in astronomy, shocked the international scientific community by announcing that he had solved the problem and that an inexpensive instrument he had designed could detect the variation. Another American, Simon Newcomb, compounded the Europeans' embarrassment. Working at the U.S. Naval Observatory Newcomb validated Chandler's findings and reconciled the difference between his obs...