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Changing Times for Frontier Markets
This paper investigates to what extent low-income developing countries (LIDCs) characterized as frontier markets (FMs) have begun to be subject to capital flows dynamics typically associated with emerging markets (EMs). Using a sample of developing countries covering the period 2000–14, we show that: (i) average annual portfolio flows to FMs as a share of GDP outstripped those to EMs by about 0.6 percentage points of GDP; (ii) during years of heightened stress in global financial markets, portfolio flows to FMs dried up like those to EMs; and that (iii) FMs have become more integrated into international financial markets. Our findings confirm that, in terms of portfolio flows, FMs have become more similar to EMs than to the rest of LIDCs and are therefore more vulnerable to swings in global financial markets conditions. Accordingly, it is important to have in place frameworks to strengthen FMs’ resilience to adverse capital flows shocks.
Estimating the Demand for Reserve Assets Across Diverse Groups
This paper takes a fresh look at the determinants of reserves holding with the aim of highlighting similarities and differences in the motives for holding reserves among emerging markets (EMs), advanced economies (AEs), and low-income countries (LICs). We apply two panel estimation techniques: fixed effects (FE) and common correlated effects pooled mean group (CCEPMG). FE regression results suggest that precautionary savings motives, both current account- and capital account-related, are generally the most important determinants of reserves holding across country groups and that their importance has increased for AEs and LICs since the global financial crisis while receding for EMs. Mercanti...
Fiscal Crises: The Role of the Public Debt Investor Base and Domestic Financial Markets as Aggravating and Mitigating Factors
The paper evaluates the key drivers of fiscal crises in a sample of countries from all three income groups—advanced, emerging, and low-income countries, using fiscal crisis data recently developed by the IMF’s Fiscal Affairs Department. The empirical study focuses on three questions: (1) How does the composition of debtholders (domestic vs. foreign, resident vs. non-resident, or official vs. non-official) affect the probability of a fiscal crisis, after controlling for the level of public debt and other relevant variables?; (2) How does the development and size of the domestic financial sector affect the probability of a fiscal crisis?; and (3) How do changes in the debt level affect the probability of a fiscal crisis, for given compositions of the sovereign debt investor base and different levels of development and size of domestic financial markets? Our findings confirm the benefits of financial development, the danger of heavy reliance on a non-resident investor base, and also that emerging market economies have a lower debt carrying capacity compared to the full sample.
Union of the Comoros
Economic conditions have improved since the beginning of the ECF-supported program. Real GDP growth is expected to remain on an upward trajectory peaking at around 41⁄2 percent under the program. Inflation is projected to decline further in 2024 although at a much slower pace than observed in 2023. The near completion of large public projects and the steady improvement in domestic revenue mobilization will be key driving factors for the improvement in the domestic primary balance. The external sector is stable, and gross international reserves are expected to remain above 7 months of import cover over the program period. The baseline, however, is subject to considerable uncertainty as Comoros continues to face the challenges of a small, fragile island state: significant development challenges, balance of payments needs, a high risk of debt distress, vulnerabilities in the banking system, governance and corruption vulnerabilities, and exposure to climate change risks. Tropical storms that impacted East Africa in April and May also inflicted significant damage across the country.
Repeated Use of IMF-Supported Programs: Determinants and Forecasting
This paper studies the determinants of repeated use of Fund-supported programs in a large sample covering virtually all General Resources Account (GRA) arrangements that were approved between 1952 and 2012. Generally, the revolving nature of the IMF’s resources calls for the temporary sup-port of member countries to address balance of payments problems while repeated use has often been viewed as program failure. First, using probit models we show that a small number of country-specific variables such as growth, the current account balance, the international reserves position, and the institutional framework play a significant role in explaining repeated use. Second, we discuss the role of IMF-specific and program-specific variables and find evidence that a country’s track record with the Fund is a good predictor of repeated use. Finally, we conduct an out-of-sample forecasting exer-cise. While our approach has predictive power for repeated use, exact forecasting remains challenging. From a policy perspective, the results could prove useful to assess the risk IMF programs pose to the revolving nature of the Fund’s financial resources.
Interest Rates, Credit Rationing, and Investment in Developing Countries
This paper examines the impact of interest rates and inflation on bank loans and investment within a framework that mimics the financial sectors prevailing in most low-income developing countries. The paper emphasizes the importance of treating the lending and deposit rates of interest as distinct parameters in investment equations. The spread between the two rates is indicative of default risk and has a negative impact on incremental loan amounts associated with higher lending rates, in particular in economies with flawed institutions. The model presented in the paper highlights the importance of promoting macroeconomic stability and upgrading institutions and informational infrastructure.
Republic of Congo
The fourth review of a three-year Extended Credit Facility (ECF) arrangement (SDR 324 million, 200 percent of quota) was concluded on December 20, 2023. Economic growth momentum softened in 2023 as oil production surprised on the downside, which, together with the 2023-2024 floods, challenges in the provisioning of electricity, and weaker public investment, weighed on non-hydrocarbon growth as well. Growth is expected to recover to close to 4 percent over the medium term. Under-execution of public spending across the board, but particularly on capital expenditures and social transfers, brought the 2023 non-hydrocarbon primary deficit to 8.4 percent of non-hydrocarbon GDP, which is 3.2 percentage points lower than projected in the fourth review (CR 24/2). However, the current account weakened, a trend that is projected to continue over the medium term, as oil production stagnates while oil prices are slightly trending down. Despite external arrears remaining below the de-minimis threshold, public debt is assessed as sustainable but “in distress” due to frequent accumulation of new external arrears and lingering uncertainty about the size of domestic arrears.
Boosting Competitiveness to Grow Out of Debt
This paper investigates the prospects for Ireland to grow its economy against the backdrop of high indebtedness. The paper uses vector autoregressive analysis to explore the interlinkages among competitiveness, exports, economic growth, and fiscal performance. The emerging conclusion is that Ireland, which has regained cost competitiveness following the crisis-driven fall in domestic prices, is poised to return to its path of strong exports and economic growth and lower imbalances provided that it maintains competitiveness, though a pickup in external demand is critical. Three main findings underpin this conclusion. First, external demand is an important driver of exports and also the single most important determinant of Ireland’s GDP and government revenue. Second, declines in price competitiveness, featured by real effective exchange rate (REER) appreciations, restrain exports and economic growth. Third, exports boost output, which in turn enhances fiscal performance.
Nonperforming Loans and Macrofinancial Vulnerabilities in Advanced Economies
We analyze the link between nonperforming loans (NPL) and macroeconomic performance using two complementary approaches. First, we investigate the macroeconomic determinants of NPL in panel regressions and confirm that adverse macroeconomic developments are associated with rising NPL. Second, we investigate the feedback between NPL and its macroeconomic determinants in a panel vector autoregressive (PVAR) model. The impulse response functions (IRFs) attribute to NPL a central role in the linkages between credit market frictions and macrofinancial vulnerability. They suggest that a sharp increase in NPL triggers long-lived tailwinds that cripple macroeconomic performance from several fronts.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
President Félix Tshisekedi was re-elected in December 2023 and a new Prime Minister was appointed on April 1, 2024, and the government on May 28. Meanwhile, the security situation in the East is deteriorating, exacerbating a humanitarian crisis that has displaced millions of people and amplifying the burden on public finances.
